The History of the Olmec Site of La Venta

The Olmec capital of La Venta is located in the city of Huimanguillo, in the state of Tabasco, Mexico, 9 miles (15 kilometers) inland from the Gulf coast. The site is perched on a narrow natural elevation approximately 2.5 mi (4 km) long which rises above the wetland swamps on the coastal plain. La Venta was first occupied as early as 1750 BCE, becoming an Olmec temple-town complex between 1200 and 400 BCE. Key Takeaways La Venta is a capital of the Middle Formative Olmec civilization, located in Tabasco state, Mexico.  It was first occupied about 1750 BCE and became an important town between 1200–400 BCE.Its economy was based on maize agriculture, hunting and fishing, and trade networks.  Evidence for early Mesoamerican writing has been discovered within 3 miles of the main site. Architecture at La Venta La Venta was the primary center of the Olmec culture and likely the most important regional capital in non-Maya Mesoamerica during the Middle Formative period (approximately 800–400 BCE). In its heyday, La Ventas residential zone included an area of about 500 acres (~200 hectares), with a population numbering in the thousands. Most of the structures at La Venta were built of wattle-and-daub walls placed atop earthen or adobe mudbrick platforms or mounds  and covered with a thatched roof. Little natural stone was available, and, apart from the massive stone sculptures, the only stone used in public architecture was a few basalt, andesite and limestone foundational support or internal buttresses. The 1 mi (1.5 km) long civic-ceremonial core of La Venta includes over 30 earthen mounds and platforms. The core is dominated by a 100 foot (30 m) high clay pyramid (called Mound C-1), which has been heavily eroded  but was likely the largest single building at the time in Mesoamerica. Despite the lack of native stone, La Ventas artisans crafted sculptures including four colossal heads from massive blocks of stone quarried from the Tuxtla Mountains approximately 62 mi (100 km) to the west. Plan of La Venta. Yavidaxiu, MapMaster The most intensive archaeological investigations at La Venta were conducted in Complex A, a small group of low clay platform mounds and plazas within an area of about 3 ac (1.4 ha), located immediately north of the tallest pyramidal mound. Most of Complex A was destroyed shortly after the excavations in 1955, by a combination of looters and civic development. However, detailed maps of the area were made by the excavators and, due primarily to the efforts of U.S. archaeologist Susan Gillespie, a digital map of the buildings and construction events at Complex A has been made. Subsistence Methods Traditionally, scholars have attributed the rise of Olmec society to the development of maize agriculture. According to recent investigations, however, the people at La Venta subsisted on fish, shellfish and terrestrial faunal remains until about 800 BC, when maize, beans, cotton, palm, and other crops were grown in gardens on relict beach ridges, called tierra de primera by maize farmers today, perhaps fueled by long-distance trade networks. U.S. archaeologist Thomas W. Killion conducted a survey of paleobotanical data from several Olmec period sites including La Venta. He suggests that the initial founders at La Venta and other Early Formative sites such as San Lorenzo were not farmers, but rather were hunter-gatherer-fishers. That dependence on mixed hunting and gathering extends well into the Formative period. Killion suggests that the mixed subsistence worked in the well-watered lowland environments, but that a wetland environment was not suited to intensive agriculture. La Venta and the Cosmos La Venta is oriented 8 degrees west of north, like most Olmec sites, the significance of which is obscure to date. This alignment is echoed in Complex As central avenue, which points to the central mountain. The central bars of each of La Ventas mosaic pavements  and the four elements of the quincunxes in the mosaics are positioned at intercardinal points. Complex D at La Venta is an E-Group configuration, a specific layout of buildings identified at over 70 Maya sites and believed to have been designed to track movements of the sun. Writing A cylinder seal and a carved greenstone plaque discovered at the San Andres site 3 mi (5 km) from La Venta provided early evidence that writing in the Mesoamerican region had its start in the Mexican Gulf Coast region by about 650 BCE. These objects bear glyphs that are related to but different from the laster Isthmian, Mayan, and Oaxacan styles of writing. Archaeology La Venta was excavated by members of the Smithsonian Institution, including Matthew Stirling, Philip Drucker, Waldo Wedel, and Robert Heizer, in three major excavations between 1942 and 1955. Most of this work was focused on Complex A: and the finds from that work were published in popular texts and La Venta quickly became the type site for defining the Olmec culture. Shortly after the 1955 excavations, the site was badly damaged by looting and development, although a brief expedition did retrieve some stratigraphic data. Much was lost in Complex A, which was torn up by bulldozers. A map of Complex A made in 1955 formed the basis for digitizing the field records of the site. Gillespie and Volk worked together to create a three-dimensional map of Complex A, based on archived notes and drawings and published in 2014. The most recent archaeological studies have been undertaken by Rebecca Gonzà ¡lez Lauck at the Instituto Nacional de Antropologà ­a e Historia (INAH). Selected Sources Clark, John E., and Arlene Colman. Olmec Things and Identity: A Reassessment of Offerings and Burials at La Venta, Tabasco. Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 23.1 (2013): 14–37.  Gillespie, Susan. Archaeological Drawings as Re-Presentations: The Maps of Complex a, La Venta, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 22.1 (2011): 3–36.  Gillespie, Susan D., and Michael Volk. A 3D Model of Complex a, La Venta, Mexico. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage 1.3–4 (2014): 72–81.  Grove, David. Discovering the Olmecs: An Unconventional History. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2014.  Killion, Thomas W. Nonagricultural Cultivation and Social Complexity. Current Anthropology 54.5 (2013): 596–606.  Pohl, Mary E. D., Kevin O. Pope, and Christopher von Nagy. Olmec Origins of Mesoamerican Writing. Science 298.5600 (2002): 1984–87. Print.Reilly, F. Kent. Enclosed Ritual Spaces and the Watery Underworld in Formative Period Architecture: New Observations on the Function of La Venta Complex A. Seventh Palenque Round Table. Eds. Robertson, Merle Greene, and Virginia M. Fields. San Francisco: Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, 1989.  Rust, William F., and Robert J. Sharer. Olmec Settlement Data from La Venta, Tabasco, Mexico. Science 242.4875 (1988): 102–04.

The Language Acquisition And Learning Concepts That I Have...

The three language acquisition and learning concepts that I have learned in this class that will most influence my teaching are the importance of paying attention to the difficulty level of the input, the importance of carefully monitoring the emotional tone of the classroom because of the affective filter, and an intentional focus on either fluency or accuracy. Steven Krashen claimed that the material students learned must be at i+1 meaning that it was just above their current level but not so hard that it was demoralizing. I think this is an incredibly important thing for me to remember because I have a tendency to be a bit impatient. Keeping i+1 in the forefront of my mind during teaching and lesson planning will give me greater motivation for keeping the pace reasonable and engaging for my students. I do not want to get overexcited and assign homework or teach a lesson that is much too difficult for my students, especially since I would most likely be teaching low level beginners . Once the difficult level is too high students will get frustrated or lose confidence in their ability to acquire a second language. This also contributes to the importance of carefully monitoring the emotional tone of the classroom. I know from my own experience that as a student that when I am feeling overly bored, sad, or frustrated I cannot really focus on the material or store it in my long term memory. Steven Krashin argues that an affective filter can inhibit a student from acquiringShow MoreRelatedDifferences Between First And Second Language Acquisition925 Words   |  4 Pagesfirst and second language acquisition. One similarity pertains to the development of reading and writing skills. 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‘Am I Blue’ – a Significant Piece of Work or a...

This essay is concerned with the short story ‘Am I Blue’ by Bruce Coville, and aim to identify and comment upon the themes presented in the short story such as the issues of adolescence, tolerance, homosexuality and sexual identity in general. Since its release in 1994, Bruce Coville’s short story has been subject to both praise and approval as well as controversy and criticism. This essay focuses on these various aspects. The protagonist, Vince, is a young boy who is questioning his own sexuality. Whilst dealing with this sexual confusion, he is also subject to bullying from a fellow schoolmate for being gay. The bullied teenager finds himself aided throughout the story by the†¦show more content†¦The story may also give the readers hope that the world eventually will treat every sort of person well, and that homosexual or sexually confused teens, will be able to handle what may be some tough years of adolescence. As a consequence, these teens may be better suited to manage the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Some of Coville’s defenders encourage adults to ‘teach tolerance and respect for all people [†¦] This is impossible by ignoring a whole group of people [†¦] This isn’t about homosexuality being right or wrong, it’s about kids learning to think for themselves.’ (Marcovitz 2005:97). By this quote one might sense that the story has a controversial side to it. As the acceptance of sexual differences might not be the norm across every community, stories like ‘Am I blue?’ may in some circles represent a threat to what certain people consider as the common convention in their area. Therefore, ‘Am I blue?’ has been subject to numerous discussions and controversy over the years. Coville, however, disagrees with his critics and is rather worried about conservative opinions that still exist within the modern society of today. Coville argues: In ‘Am I Blue?’ there is a story of tolerance, which a certain subset of our culture has a big problem with. I had hope that once we passed the 2000 millennium madness, that would fade, but I no longer feel

Foxconn free essay sample

Hence, the interplay of high unemployment levels and limited capital investment has caused the phenomenon of sweatshops. Although no set definitions of sweatshops exist, they are effectively the consequence of developing nations suppressing wages and sacrificing working conditions to compete to attract foreign investments (Arnold Hartman, 2003). Notable characteristics are extreme exploitation (wages and work hours), poor working conditions, military-like discipline and intimidation of employees (Radin Calkin, 2006). These characteristics have often been associated with Foxconn, the world’s largest contract electronics manufacturer (40% of world’s electronic items) for brands such as Apple, Dell, HP and IBM (Wagstaff, 2012). However, the focus of our report is on the fourteen committed suicides, four failed suicides, and eligibly twenty additional attempts during eight months in 2010 (SACOM, 2010). This report will attempt to analyse the unethical practices that lead to these horrendous outcomes. This report will use Utilitarian, Kantian and Rights ethical theories to analyse wages, working conditions, management style and development/training in Foxconn. Recommendations will made in light of this research. 1 Background Alternating ethical views can be applied to sweatshops to recognize different facets and levels of unethical practices. Firstly, utilitarian theory focuses on the outcomes and argues it is ethically acceptable if an action can produce more good than harm. Secondly, virtue ethics focuses on the innate qualities of the decision maker or manager (Beauchamp, Bowie, Arnold, 2009). Thirdly, Deontology ethics focuses on the motivation of the action for ethical judgement. However, Radin and Calkin (2006) suggested these theories lack the robustness to make strong moral arguments against sweatshops. However, Arnold and Bowie (2005) argues that Kantian’s second categorical imperative to never treat others as a means but always as an ends portrays strong foundations for employee actions. Also, human rights ethics is an extension of Kantian views from the perspective of the employee, in that employees have rights to freedom and subsistence (Arnold and Bowie, 2005). These two ethical theories will be the focus of our report. Dignity is explored heavily in Kantian and human rights ethics. Kim and Cohen (2010) identified in Asian cultures dignity is primary defined by what people thinks of you, given that Foxconn is an Eastern company, an examination of dignity is strongly encouraged. Furthermore, Lucas, Kang and Li (2012) identified that Foxconn employees suffered from mortifications of their self-worth and self-value (loss of dignity) as a result of working under a total constitution system. There has been growing consensus that stakeholder theory can be used as a normative ethical theory (Palmer Stoll, 2011). Freeman’s stakeholder (1984) theory suggests it is unethical to ignore consequences of a firms’ actions on other stakeholders, namely employees. Why not just increase wages and improve conditions? Maitland (2005) suggested if supplier companies were to bear these costs, it would in turn make them competitively disadvantaged, reducing their foreign investments and hence required to reduce employment; a vicious cycle. Similarly, if a Multinational Corporation (MNC) increased wages without respecting local social factors such that a person working for Nike could earn more than a professor in Beijing University, this will severely damage social dynamics. A counter-argument to Maitland’s case was proposed by Arnold and Bowie (2005) who contents that increasing wages and conditions do not have to be associated with overall decreases in welfare. Arnold and Bowie contents that MNC’s can bear the costs without causing hardships in communities they operate in and increasing wages and conditions can subsequently boost employee morale and increase productivity. This idea is consistent with Arnold and Hartman (2005) where companies can obtain strategic advantages when enforcing ethical practices. Arnold and Hartman found that better working conditions and wages were associated with reduction in absentees, staff turnover and in turn, recruitment and training costs. 2. 0 Explanation Firstly, Utilitarian perspective proposes the† greatest happiness principle† (Beauchamp, Bowie, Arnold, 2009) which aims at maximizing good and minimizing harm. According to the theory Utilitarian ethics bases ethical judgment on consequences of action, therefore it is considered ethical action if the outcome is able to provide the greatest good for the greatest number people. There has been debate regarding the meaning of â€Å"good†, but for our report, let us use individual preferences, which is largely supported by actions, as the meaning of â€Å"good†. For example, within our context, it is considered satisfying one’s preference if one choses to work. Another element of utilitarian is that everyone is to count for one and no one countered as more than one. Kant’s ethical theory more specifically his second imperative (â€Å"Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only) sets a great foundation of the duties of an employer to one’s employee. Kantian view states one has an â€Å"obligation† to always treat an employee as an end and never exclusively as a means, because by not doing so, one would be ignoring their dignity, and ignoring one’s dignity is equivalent to treating them as capital or mere machines (Beauchamp, Bowie, Arnold, 2009). According to the Kantian View, an employer must respect their employee’s moral dignity beyond the value of price alone (negative obligation) and also, to support and develop their rational and moral capacities (positive obligation). There are some correlativity between the Kantian’s obligation theory and rights theory. Kantian suggests that the manager has the right to respect the employee’s dignity, while the rights theory argues the employee has the right to freedom and subsistence (minimal economic security) which according to Arnold and Hartman (2005) are the basic human rights. Therefore, this report will apply Kantian views to management and rights ethics from employee perspective. Moreover, Arnold and Hartman (2005) have compiled basic rights and universal codes that are applicable within the business context (Table 1). Simply put, human rights are natural rights must be free from interference from other parties given the appropriate justifications. Table 1: Arnold and Hartman (2005) The average wage of Foxconn employee in 2010 was around $143 per month (Moore, 2010), although low, it is relatively higher than its competitors, Seven wolf the famous cloth manufacturer in china offers $120 and YIQI, which is a largest car manufacturer, earn $115 per month. Evidently, based on wages alone, Foxconn appears to be the best option. Hence, there are huge numbers people, with limited skills willing to work which effectively produces over supply of wrokers for limited positions. Effectively, application for work at Foxconn is voluntary and made by the individuals. According to preference utility, action represents preference which represents increase in utility, with this in mind, Foxconn increases utility for its workers. From this interpretation Foxconn has not comprised ethics. This becomes more apparent if hypothetically Foxconn was not to exist, Foxconn employees would be subject to no work or lower work wages. 3. 1. 2 Marginal Utility However, when comparing the marginal benefits of a worker and Foxconn owners, utilitarian views condemns these actions. Figure 1 illustrates the steep revenue increase experienced by Foxconn, yet the employees are not compensated as proportionally. According to Utilitarian theory, everyone counts as one, and the having majority good given to the lowest numbers (CEO and management) is unethical. Similarly, stakeholder theory suggests that Foxconn’s actions should considered employees because they are affected by these prices. [pic] Figure 1: Foxconn Revenue: Chan Pun (2010) 3. 2 Kantian Views As previously stated, Kantian views will largely be explored from the managerial standpoint. 3. 2. 1 Means not Ends Kantian’s second categorical imperative clearly states to treat one as an ends and never as a means. Pratap and Dutta’s (2012) reports that Foxconn workers are being treated worse than machines, because it costs to replace machines but workers can be replaced by another one without any cost (Figure 2). Furthermore, Chinese Labour law states that employees are to work no more than eight hours a day, and forty four hours a week, and no more than three hours overtime a day or thirty six hours a month, but Foxconn employees regularly exceed these legal limits. SACOM (2010) indicated it was cheaper to uses human capital than machines, a rarely phenomenon in Western society. Notably, one of the victims of suicide allegedly worked one-hundred-and-twelve hours overtime a month. Evidently, Foxconn compares human capital directly with machines clearly violated the Kantian principles. Moreover, in 2010 it was independently confirmed that 137 workers were poisoned by a chemical called n-hexane which was used to clean iPhone screens. N-hexane is known to cause eye, skin and respiratory tract irritation, and leads to persistent nerve damage (Damon, 2011). It was later noted that Foxconn intentionally used N-hexane for cleaning because it was cheap and not listed for prohibit use in China laws (Charles, 2012). Kantian views argue that human life has dignity and should not be valued based on price alone, it appears Foxconn has made decisions based on costs. This is clear violation of Kantian ethics. [pic] Figure 2: Not Machines (SACOM, 2010) 3. 2. 2 Respecting one’s dignity According to Kantian views dignity separates humans from machines, humans have dignity because they are capable of moral activity and autonomous self-governance. Dignity arises from self-worth based on respect and honour. Kim and Cohen (2010) and Lee (2008) found differences between dignity in Asian and Western cultures, in that Asian dignity is earned, derived from relations of and focus on duties, while Western dignity is more inherent and individually based and focused on rights. Also, unlike Western cultures where dignity is absolute and equal amongst people, in Asian cultures dignity is hierarchical where one could have more dignity than another simply based on job status and wages. Lastly, within the Chinese context, dignity is associated with the term â€Å"face† which incorporates personal integrity, family honour and social respect (Lee, 2008). Coupling these with Kantian views, it accentuates that Foxconn employees derive dignity more from treatment from management and work responsibilities. It was found that managers from Foxconn were not qualified and used militarization management procedures for theft (David, 2010). Workers were forced to sign confidential agreements that consented bag checks. Moreover, workers were often prone to bag checks before leaving factories and random apartment checks if stock was missing. Also, any bad behaviour were publically scrutinized on noticeboards to be seen by peers. According to SACOM (2010), these humiliating checks and inhuman punishment (toilet and floor cleaning) were factors that cause suicides in from workers. Clearly there is a lack of trust by management, according to Kantian views it also suggests a lack of respect for employees as moral beings. Furthermore, Foxconn workers are largely objectified to repetitive labour intensive work. More importantly, Foxconn has no intentions to train, develop or promote these workers. Due to the huge extra costs, employees’ training and development are regarded as an unconsidered question for Foxconn’s senior management (Savitz, 2012). As long as the workers on the assembly line can operate the machines which is needed for the working position (Su, 2010), the employee training is ended. Simply put, their missions are to complete their works, and it is impossible to have any further improvement space. This case effectively encapsulates the main Kantian unethical actions of Foxconn. Firstly, employees are given the same degrading work until they quit or becomes customary. Secondly, no development or training is given to either develop their moral and employability capacities (beyond that of required) clearly compromises the Kantian ethics. 3. 3 Rights Ethics This section will investigate the degrading of basic human rights such as dignity, freedom and subsistence. Foxconn as a total institution is a pervasive theme in this section. 3. 3. 1 Total Institution causes loss of control and dignity According to Lucus, Kang, and Li (2012), Foxconn operates as a total institution. By definition, a total institution is a place of residence and work where a high number of individuals live an enclosed and formally administered life, separated from society for an extended time. Sayer (2007) states that one is dignified with the ability to control oneself, competently and appropriately exercising one’s power (Autonomous control). However, one of the main characteristics of Total Institution is the high degree of control. For example, by living within close proximity to production plants, it meant that workers were made to work at untimely hours. Furthermore, food, drink, sleep and even washing routines were all scheduled like production lines. According to Chan and Pun (2010) this reduced employee’s sense of control, and in turn freedom and dignity, which are innate human rights (Arnold and Hartman, 2005). Moreover, SACOM (2010) identified a number of CEO Terry Guo’s maxims displayed to indoctrinate employees. Such slogans included, â€Å"Hungry people have especially clear minds†, â€Å"Work itself is a type of joy† and â€Å"Work hard on job today or work hard to find a job tomorrow†. Although these messages are not clear obligations enforced by Foxconn, however these messages imply the subtle threat of losing their jobs, which jeopardizes employee’s ability to make decisions free from external influences. 3. 3. 2 Lack of Meaningful relationships reduces Dignity According to Kim and Cohen (2010) and Lee (2008), dignity in Asian cultures are built by value of self-worth given by others, simply put, social relationships facilitates dignity. While it is illogical to suggest that no social interaction means no dignity, social relationships clearly adds incremental value to dignity. Lucas, Kang, and Li (2012) discovered during work hours employees are to reframe from communicating to one another and must wear mask. This effectively creates conditions of anonymity to the extent that in a room of ten, most individuals do not even know each other’s names. Combining multiple theories together it suggests that lack of social interactions reduces dignity, which reduces one’s self-esteem and inevitability reduces one’s ability to self-governance (control). Effectively, both Kantian and rights ethics are worthless here. 3. 3. 2 Subsistence With reference table 1, working conditions, freedom from forced labour and right to bargain wages collectively are rights that have been unfulfilled. In addition, Figure 3 clearly identifies the unethical wages of Foxconn workers. This coupled with excessive unpaid overtime wages, demonstrates that an employee’s subsistence (human right) is not satisfied. [pic] Figure 3: Wage rates of Living Wage, Minimum Wage and Foxconn wage (SACOM, 2010) 4. 0 Recommendations I acknowledge that sweatshops and unethical standards exist as a consequence of globalization and economic development which causes asymmetry of power, but I contest that unethical standards can be avoided, if not reduced. Therefore, my recommendation includes a two part approach that empowering the workers and making it strategically advantageous to be ethical. I hope these policies will reduce the supply of lowly-skilled labour force, increase the competitiveness of workers and align the interests of organizations and ethical behaviour. Firsty, rather than focusing on increasing wages and working conditions, Foxconn should adopt training and development programs for its employees to improve their current dignity, employability and skill set. Consistent with Kantian view one should develop employees as moral beings, but also extents Kantian view by developing their mind and skills. Morally, I believe both counseling and social interactions within Foxconn can hugely benefit self-esteem and dignity within workers. Also, trade unions independent of Foxconn and government are required to give employees power of speech. Furthermore, by educating and developing skills for existing employees, it gives them the opportunity to either promote internally or strive for more skill based job elsewhere, while also giving opportunities for new employees. Arnold and Hartman (2005) suggested improving labour-related standards can be associated with increased productivity, employee morale and loyalty and brand reputation. I believe it is very important to make these benefits salient and replicable. The World Trade Organisation can play a vital part not only by enforcing laws, but making these unethical practices more observable by consumers. As a result of public scrutiny, it forces MNCs to act ethically by improving or changing their suppliers. This will produce a domino effect on the suppliers to either improve working conditions and wages or lose foreign investments. Effectively, my goal is to change the market in that suppliers are competing for foreign investment with favourable working conditions rather than low prices. 5. 0 Conclusions This report has demonstrated how sweatshops have failed ethical standards from an Utilitarian, Kantian and Rights perspective. Utilitarian views have portrayed the disproportional marginal benefits received by Foxconn over its employees. Kantian ethics has illustrated unethical management techniques such as treating workers as machines by forcing excessive workload and ignoring their rights for dignity. Rights ethics has extended on Kantian ethics by focusing on the employee. It was reviewed that under the Total Institutional characteristic reduced worker’s sense of freedom, control and in turn dignity. Recommendations were made to empower employees and marketing positive strategic advantages for ethical standards. It is hope these recommendations will not only reduce low skilled labour, but also improve employability and morality amongst workers The ethical views in this report accurately highlighted unethical practices of Foxconn, however this approach is too passive and reactive to company actions. More research is needed to develop a more comprehensive and robust theory that actively sets guidelines and codes of conducts that can be used by management. Future research is required to provide a clear definition of sweatshops before laws and codes of conduct can be used to condemn them.